Anime & Comic 'whitewashing' is the adaptation by Hollywood

From  The Face of the Other by Matt Thorn

I have given presentations on manga to Western audiences many times, but regardless of the particular themes of my talks, when the floor is opened up for discussion I am invariably asked the same question: “Why do all the characters look Caucasian?” You may have asked yourself the same question.

I answer that question with a question of my own: “Why do you think they look Caucasian?” “Because of the round eyes,” or the “blonde hair,” is the common response. When I ask then if the questioner actually knows anyone, “Caucasian” or otherwise, who really looks anything like these highly stylized cartoons, the response may be, “Well, they look more Caucasian than Asian.” Considering the wide range of variation in the features of persons of both European and East Asian descent, and the fact that these line drawings fall nowhere remotely within that range, it seems odd to claim that such cartoons look “more like” one people than another, but I hope you will see by now that what is being discussed has nothing to do with objective anatomical reality, but is rather about signification.

A key concept in semiotics is that of “markedness” and “unmarkedness,” elaborated by linguist Roman Jakobson in the 1930s. An “unmarked” category is one that is taken for granted, that is so obvious to both speaker and listener it needs no marking. A “marked” category, by contrast, is one that is seen as deviating from the norm, and therefore requires marking. Well-known examples in English are the words “man” and “woman.” “Man” has for a millennium meant both “human being” and “adult male human being.” The word “woman” comes from a compound meaning “wife-man,” and denotes the relationship of the signified to that “unmarked” category, “man.”

In the case of cartooning, of course, we are dealing with drawn representations rather than words, but the concept of “marked/unmarked” is every bit as salient. In the case of the U.S., and indeed the entire European-dominated world, the unmarked category in drawn representations would be the face of the European. The European face is, as it were, the default face. Draw a circle, add two dots for eyes and a line for a mouth, and you have, in the European sphere, a European face. (More specifically, you would have a male European face. The addition of eyelashes would make it female.) Non-Europeans, however, must be marked in drawn or painted representations, just as they commonly are in daily conversation (e.g., “I have this Black friend who...”).

The grotesque racial and ethnic stereotyping of former decades has been largely purged from the mainstream, but only to be replaced by less offensive, yet nonetheless stereotyped, signifiers. Non-Europeans living in a European-dominated society absorb these standards themselves, and not only are continuously made to be aware of their “otherness,” but adhere, out of necessity, to the Eurocentric system of signification. If an American of Asian descent wants to create a children’s book intended to build self-esteem among Asian American children and educate other children about Asian American experiences, she must first make sure the readers know that the characters represented are Asian, and so, consciously or not, she resorts to stereotyped signifiers that are easily recognizable, such as “slanted” eyes (an exaggerated representation of the epicanthic fold that is often, but not always, more pronounced in East Asians than in Europeans or Africans) or pitch black, straight hair (regardless of the fact that East Asian hair can range from near-black to reddish brown, and is often wavy or even frizzy). So it is that Americans and others raised in European-dominated societies, regardless of their background, will see a circle with two dots for eyes and a line for a mouth, free of racial signifiers, as “white.”

Japan, however, is not and never has been a European-dominated society. The Japanese are not Other within their own borders, and therefore drawn (or painted or sculpted) representations of, by and for Japanese do not, as a rule, include stereotyped racial markers. A circle with two dots for eyes and a line for a mouth is, by default, Japanese.

It should come as no surprise, then, that Japanese readers should have no trouble accepting the stylized characters in manga, with their small jaws, all but nonexistent noses, and famously enormous eyes as “Japanese.” Unless the characters are clearly identified as foreign, Japanese readers see them as Japanese, and it would never occur to most readers that they might be otherwise, regardless of whether non-Japanese observers think the characters look Japanese or not.

When non-Japanese characters appear in a manga in which most characters are Japanese, that character will be differentiated from the others with stereotyped racial markers of some kind. For example, a character of African descent may be shown with pronounced lips, frizzy hair, and shaded skin. A European character may be shown with a pronounced nose and jutting jaw.

Such is my argument, but many find it unconvincing. They insist that manga characters are unmistakably “Caucasian,” and that the ubiquity of Caucasian characters in manga and Japanese popular culture generally are clear indicators of a desire on the part of Japanese to identify themselves with the European West, rather than the Asian East. Indeed a number of Western scholars have suggested that Japanese today harbor just such a desire, that they deny their “Asianness” and try instead to identify themselves with the Western, “white,” Center. The curious fact that Chinese characters appearing in manga are often portrayed using the same markers of “Asianness” (slanted eyes, straight black hair) common in Western representations may seem to be irrefutable evidence of this assertion.

Yet such assertions are rife with flaws. First of all, they seem to take domestic concepts of ethnic identity that have developed in the politically charged context of an ethnically diverse society, such as the U.S. or the U.K., and apply them wholesale to Japan, a foreign society, as if the Japanese were just another “minority” vis-a-vis a European American “majority.” For Asian Americans to assert their “Asianness” (regardless of whether or not such a trait actually exists) may be politically meaningful in the context of U.S. society, but it certainly does not follow that Japanese, or any other Asian people, should, or meaningfully could, embrace a similar identity.

Second, the notion that the Japanese harbor an inferiority complex vis-a-vis the White West seems to me based on the largely unconscious assumption that non-Western peoples envy the West, and more specifically on the American fantasy that everyone in the world naturally wants to be American. Of course, the scholars and intellectuals who note such tendencies in Japan do not applaud it; on the contrary, they cluck their tongues and wring their hands and wish loudly that the Japanese would shun the temptations of the West and remain true to and proud of their heritage. But the eagerness with which they seek out evidence of a desire to be “white,” and the stubbornness with which they ignore evidence to the contrary, suggests to me that their apprehension of social reality is heavily filtered through an unintended ethnocentrism.

Finally, the evidence of such an inferiority complex is hardly conclusive, and there seems to me to be as much evidence against it as there is for it. For example, the case of stereotyped representation of Chinese in manga can be explained without concluding that the Japanese identify themselves with the White West. Setting aside manga in which stereotypes are used to get a laugh, or to assert a racist viewpoint (and that does happen from time to time), racial stereotypes usually appear in manga only when the stereotyped character is a minority within the story. A Chinese character in a manga set in Japan is marked, through stereotyped visual markers (and often speech habits, too), so as to distinguish her from the Japanese characters, who are in the unmarked category.

Interestingly, in a manga in which Chinese or European characters are the majority, such as a story set in China or Europe, majority characters are generally drawn exactly as Japanese characters would be drawn in a manga set in Japan, without any racial stereotyping at all. In the context of such a story, the Chinese or European characters are not Other, and markings of Otherness would be superfluous. The artist would make the foreign setting obvious through names, clothing, customs, architecture, and “props,” rather than burdening every character with stereotyped racial features, which would limit her ability to distinguish characters from each other, and would also make it difficult for readers to identify with protagonists. Furthermore, if a Japanese character appears in such a story, she will usually be marked visually as Japanese, although usually only by black hair and eyes. (Readers are often expected to identify with such characters, and more exaggerated markings would interfere with that identification.)

Racial markings in manga, therefore, are generally relative. By contrast, an American comic book set in Japan or China would most likely portray every character with stereotyped racial signifiers (and probably with contrived accents, as well). It may be that Westerners, accustomed to non-relative, standardized racial markers, are baffled by the Japanese system of relative signification, in which a single artist may portray a Chinese character one way in one story (set in Japan), and very differently in another (set in China).

It may be true that Japanese are, on average, often ambivalent towards the West, towards America, and towards all things not Japanese. And, yes, they are often sharply critical of their own society, and may sometimes look to other societies for preferable alternatives. But in these respects, they seem to me to be pretty much like any other people. It seems to me there are far more interesting questions to explore, and so I will say no more on the subject, though I have no doubt that some of my readers will be reluctant to drop entirely the question of whether or not the Japanese want to be “white.”

In response to this article here is my take on all the current issues relating to asian adaptions by Hollywood such as Dragon ball's Goku and Avatar etc

Goku is definitely not white it was created by Japanese therefore it is seen as Japanese. However with transition of fantasy characters into the real world we are looking as so many social dynamics that needs to be adapted. Often enough mainstream society would failed to recognize the that replacing something Asian with "White" would indeed insult many ethnicities especially of that manga's origin in terms of cultural insensitivities.

Hollywood is all but guilty when it comes to white washing characters in movies this comes at no surprise. The only reason the female characters who are allowed to be played by asian women is because they are often seen as objects in support the white male heroics and that evidently takes us back to the historical contexts surrounded by Asian stereotypes and the white Saviour.

Simply put the decision is white male centric as well as the view suits the taste buds of white male Hollywood executives. It could more or less sleazy just like a newspaper with an adult entertainment section with asian massage parlor advertisments.

This is the social construct in place of western society, the losers are the minorities who are forced to consume these tasteless standards in mainstream entertainment. Stereotypes are further enforced, asian men are marginalized in representation and white males are generically paired with females.

Avatar is one of the hottest topics of everything wrong. Basically the you could say that this was indeed a pure product of a deeply rooted racist society.

Maybe Paramount and Hollywood are just terrible with adaptations and plain ignorant. More evidently Asian animation adaptations in Hollywood will never be of anything in good quality. There are have too many cultural components that are core to the the story and the characters, the directors are already terrible when it comes to directing anything non-white.

Take for example, asian comics, anime, manhua all have had better results in film production in Asia in comparison to Hollywood attempted rework.

The Young and Dangerous movie you might have seen is froma comic named Teddy boy ( Teddy boys website ), Storm Riders is another old classic.

Though dealing with the bottom line principle, why don't Hollywood just hire Asian people who might be more familiar with the cultural grounds in which they working with? I don't see whats the problem with having Asian directors and Asians actors/actress in Hollywood. 

It only makes sense.

* More about about manhua on Wiki http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhua
* Short History of manwa http://capcold.net/eng/blog/?p=11 (time lime)
* Contemporary Korean Comics (Manwa today) http://capcold.net/eng/blog/?p=12

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From Schema magazine
[manhua (Chinese comics) and manhwa (Korean comics) [we shouldn't disregard the truyen tranh (Vietnamese comics) and komiks (Filipino comics)]. All three share common characteristics, but diverge in their themes and visual and narrative approach to showcase their own cultural and historical contexts.

In terms of manhua, a majority of them come out of Hong Kong, including ones made into films such as Fung Wan (Wind & Cloud) which became the cult film The Storm Riders; Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon; Hero; The Ravages of Time of the Three Kingdom period; and the Young & Dangerous series. Taiwan's most popular contribution is The One, a girly comic about the fashion industry.

And climbing up the popularity charts has been the Korean manhwa...considered to be more poetic than Japanese manga. Incidentally, manhwa is read in the same diretion as English books--that is, horizontally from left to right because hangul is normally written this way. Internationally well-known is the Hyung Min-Woo's (his pic above) manhwa PRIEST (pic to the right), a blend of gothic horror and Wild West. Priest has garnered attention from gaming and movies, with a Hollywood adaptation in the works right now (starring Gerald Butler)...

Priest spans the modern times, the Crusades, and the Wild West, and tells the story of humanity's battle against 12 fallen angels, led by the archangel Temozarela. Despite having fought for God in the battle against Lucifer, the angels find that God had lost interest in them and is focusing his attention on humans. So the angels decide to rebel against God in light of God's favoritism towards the human race...]

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Capcold's Korean manhwa & Cultural Exchange

[In spite of their differences, they seem to hold inherent qualities that are trans-cultural. In every culture - whether it be North America, Europe or Asia - comics were at some point target of censorship and oppression. Then, they have expanded their readership from children to adults, and tried hard to be recognized as a form of artistic expression. Timings differ, but experiences are shared.

Obviously this macroscopic grouping could never totally embrace the individual differences that each member within that region has. For instance, French and German comics exhibit many differences even though they belong to the ’same’ European comics; If compared against comics in other cultural regions - such as Asian - these two would have much in common, but between themselves they show different kinds of fascinations (which, of course, are rooted deeply into the social contexts of each). Therefore, to enjoy the world of comics fully, these commonalities and differences should be taken into account.

Unfortunately however, enjoying comics that are not from one’s own cultural group is still in its basic steps. By nature, comics are so deeply embedded in the popular culture of the reader’s own society; So, understanding can only be achieved when one is ready to accept and step into the other’s culture].

The Fascination of Korean Comics

[Korean comics share the same basic traits of Asian comics. Age-long traditions of line drawings, pictorial poems, cartoon-like folkloric pictures and serialized picture-stories are some of the major roots of the east Asian forms of comics.
Another thing to notice of Korean comics is its variety and dynamism. Korea’s dramatic modern history resulted in multi-directional development of comics. At times imagination flourished from pure need to bypass censorship and oppression, at other times it was to succeed amid difficult economic situation; and then there were times when artistic spirit emanated to combine new sensitivity with ancestral inheritance. Some key words to understand the Korean comics culture are:

* Manhwabang: ‘Manhwabang’ is a sort of a private library where people can rent comic books to be read on the spot on pay-by-time basis. There are thousands of those spread throughout Korea. What began during the poor days as a way to read more comic books for a less price, continues to thrive today in spite of economic affluence. Each month, several hundred titles of so-called ‘daily comics’ - pulp fiction style comics printed on low quality paper - are published exclusively for rental at these Manhwabangs.

* Women, the ‘half’ of that world: Female-centered comics in Korea, the so-called ‘Sentimental comics’ are based on a strong culture among female readership, female writers and amateur clubs. Since the 80’s they have escaped the narrow genre of ‘love and romance stories’, to encompass a wider variety of subjects such as historic epic, daily lives and (of course) feminism. The quantity and quality of female artists have continuously grown to make up almost half of the comic artists in Korea.

* Co-existence of Various Markets: Various markets as seller’s market, rental market(mostly Manhwabang) and ‘educational comics’(comics used for informative purposes) market co-exist quite independently in Korea. Each has its own distribution channel, readership as well as social function.

* From Cyber-Money to Mobile comics: Korea enjoys one of the highest broadband internet distribution rate in the world. Internet has long become an essential part of the Korean life. Besides artistic desires to utilize the cyberspace, ‘online Manhwabang’ where readers can pay cyber-money to stream comics onto their own monitor, or ‘mobile phone comics’ where one can receive segments of comic strips equipped with animation and sound effect over the mobile phone, are already reality in Korea.

Cultural Exchange of Korean comics

To make cultural exchange of comics meaningful, they should be conducted through works and artists that embody the unique characteristics of their own cultural and social context. Only then, the reader could discover NEW satisfactions and inspirations which could not be found when tied only to their own cultures. Even if as a result they want to learn and resemble some characteristics of each other, such would be done by adjusting them to their own cultural context.

Ironically, Korea has been more than generous in importing foreign comics in spite of its limited attempts to export its own. Of those imports, Japanese comics fill the majority followed by Chinese comics. However, among younger readers, interest in U.S. and European comics continue to increase. In fact, more than 50 European titles have been introduced in the past 3 years , resulting in the diversification of comics.

Cultural exchange of comics is more than just some financial trade, and must be preceded by cultural acceptance. This introduction is but a small step toward creating an environment for such acceptance. I merely hope this will be a small touchstone to greater ‘exchanges’ in future.]